The C+C5 Format as a New Stage in China’s Cooperation with Central Asia
By independent expert Yana Varyvoda
The origins of China’s relations with Central Asian countries can be traced back to their historical connection through the Silk Road — an ancient trade route that linked China with the West from the 2nd century BCE to the mid-15th century. China’s interest in Central Asia, from the emergence of newly independent states after the collapse of the USSR to the present day, is driven by several key factors:
- Geographical Proximity
Sharing borders with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, China is naturally linked to Central Asia. This geographical closeness makes it logical for China to seek good relations with the region.
Central Asian countries and China
- Security
China is keen on minimizing potential threats from its Central Asian neighbours, particularly by cooperating to combat the so-called “three evils”— terrorism, separatism, and extremism. Specifically, China’s greatest concerns are about separatism in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region bordering Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, including the risks of its support from the 300,000-strong Uyghur diaspora in Central Asia.
- Energy
In recent years, with the escalation of U.S.-China tensions and the associated risk of the U.S. and/or its allies (such as India) blocking the Strait of Malacca — through which approximately 80% of China’s oil imports are delivered — China has been particularly focused on ensuring land-based energy supplies. In this context, developing relations with oil- and gas-rich Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan is especially important for China.
- Economy
The large markets of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan appear highly promising to China.
China’s relations with the newly independent states of Central Asia began with bilateral contacts, particularly the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan in January 1992. In general, by the late 1990s, China’s focus in bilateral relations with the countries of the region was primarily on laying the groundwork for economic cooperation with all of Central Asia and resolving territorial disputes with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. The border treaty between China and Kazakhstan was signed in Almaty on April 26, 1994. With Kyrgyzstan, a treaty was reached as late as 2009, although the delimitation of the Sino-Kyrgyz border occurred back in 1996. With Tajikistan, the agreement was finalized in 2011.
On April 26, 1996, in Shanghai, the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Russia signed the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions, marking the creation of a group known as the “Shanghai Five”. Building on this foundation, an international regional organization called the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) was established in June 2001 to enhance cooperation in combating the “three evils” of terrorism, separatism, and extremism. That same year, Uzbekistan joined the SCO. Created to foster political, economic, security, and defence cooperation, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization added a multilateral dimension to China’s bilateral relations with the Central Asian countries (all except Turkmenistan, which never became a member of the SCO).
The leaders of the Shanghai Five countries
Signing of documents on the establishment of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, 2001
In September 2013, during a visit to Kazakhstan, Xi Jinping announced the launch of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which all Central Asian countries joined. The Belt and Road Initiative is an umbrella megaproject with the official goal of fostering global infrastructure development and improving regional connectivity. Unofficially, it also aims to expand China’s regional and global influence. In addition to the fact that the initiative was announced in Central Asia, the importance of the region within the Belt and Road Initiative is evidenced by the key role of Central Asia in the land component of the initiative, the Silk Road Economic Belt. Within the framework of the Silk Road Economic Belt, China envisions the creation of three trans-Eurasian economic corridors, two of which pass through Central Asia:
- The northern corridor (China – Central Asia – Russia – Europe),
- The central corridor (China – Central and Western Asia – the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean),
- And the southern corridor (China – Southeast Asia – South Asia – Indian Ocean).
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
The Belt and Road Initiative incorporates both multilateral and bilateral cooperation formats. Since 2017, multilateral Belt and Road Forums for International Cooperation have been held every few years, while agreements regarding individual countries’ participation and specific project implementations are established bilaterally.
Leaders at the Third Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, 2023
On July 16, 2020, during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, China’s Foreign Minister Wang Yi held a meeting with his Central Asian counterparts: Kazakh Foreign Minister Mukhtar Tleuberdi, Kyrgyz Foreign Minister Chingiz Aidarbekov, Tajik Foreign Minister Sirojiddin Muhriddin, Turkmen Foreign Minister Rashid Meredov, and Uzbek Foreign Minister Abdulaziz Kamilov. This meeting marked the launch of the C + C5 format — annual meetings of the foreign ministers of the six countries to discuss the most pressing issues of their cooperation. To date, five such meetings have been held, with the most recent taking place in December 2024 in Chengdu, China. The C + C5 format has become a new stage in cooperation between China and Central Asia, introducing a qualitatively new form of engagement. Namely, previously, China’s interactions with the five Central Asian countries took place either through bilateral channels or within the frameworks of the SCO and the Belt and Road Initiative. The establishment of C + C5, however, signalled the adoption of a practice referred to as “multilateral bilateralism,” through which China engages with all Central Asian countries as a single, cohesive regional entity.
Fourth Meeting of Foreign Ministers in the C+C5 format, 2023
In 2023, cooperation within the C + C5 format reached a new level when, from May 18 to 19, the first China-Central Asia summit was held in the Chinese city of Xi’an. The summit brought together China’s leader Xi Jinping, Kazakh President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, Kyrgyz President Sadyr Japarov, Uzbek President Shavkat Mirziyoyev, Tajik President Emomali Rahmon, and Turkmen President Serdar Berdimuhamedow. Xi Jinping later described the summit as one that “added new impetus to the development and revitalisation of the six counties, and injected strong positive energy into regional peace and stability.” He also announced plans to provide Central Asian countries with financial assistance and grants totalling $3.8 billion.
China-Central Asia Summit Opening Ceremony, 2023
The achievements of China’s cooperation with Central Asia within the framework of the C + C5 format and beyond are as follows:
First, there is economic cooperation. In 2023, China surpassed Russia, becoming the main trading partner for all five countries in the region. That year, trade turnover between China and Central Asia reached $89.4 billion, and it further increased in 2024, reaching $94.8 billion.
Second, there is infrastructure development. Under the Belt and Road Initiative, China is financing various infrastructure projects in the region, such as the modernization of the Shymkent oil refinery in Kazakhstan, the construction of a railway linking China’s Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region with Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, and the construction of the Dushanbe-Chanak highway in Tajikistan. By 2023, the total value of Chinese projects in Central Asia exceeded $63 billion.
Shymkent oil refinery
Third, energy. As mentioned earlier, Central Asia — particularly Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan — is crucial for China as a supplier of energy resources. For several years, Turkmenistan has been the largest exporter of pipeline gas to China, while Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan occupy the fourth and fifth positions, respectively. Turkmenistan also ranks 14th among China’s oil suppliers.
Fourth, security. China and the Central Asian countries actively cooperate in countering the “three evils,” which is a topic of discussion at every meeting within the C + C5 format. In practice, this cooperation is reflected in the collaboration between law enforcement agencies of the six countries, as well as the complete silence from Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan regarding the methods employed by the Chinese government against the Uyghurs.
